Description
Taylor & Francis Ltd Low-Enthalpy Geothermal Resources For Power Generation 2008 Edition by D. Chandrasekharam, Jochen Bundschuh
In many developing countries the exponentially growing electricity demand can be covered by using locally available, sustainable low-enthalpy geothermal resources (80-150 DegreesC). Such low-enthalpy sources can make electricity generation more independent from oil imports or from the over-dependence on hydropower. Until now this huge energy resource has only been used by some developed countries like the USA, Iceland and New Zealand. The reason why low-enthalpy geothermal resources are not used for electricity generation is that there is still a misconception that low-enthalpy thermal fluids are fit only for direct application. The advancement of drilling technology, development of efficient heat exchangers and deployment of high sensitive binary fluids contribute to the useful application of this energy resource on a much wider scale.This book focuses on all aspects of low enthalpy geothermal thermal fluids. It will be an important source book for all scientists working on geothermal energy development. Specifically those involved in research in developing countries rich in such thermal resources, and for agencies involved in bilateral and international cooperation. foreword1 Introduction2 World electricity demand and source mix forecasts 2.1 World overview2.2 Regional electricity markets and forecasts until 20302.3 Regional electricity source mix and forecasts until 20302.3.1 Coal2.3.2 Natural gas2.3.3 Oil2.3.4 Nuclear2.3.5 Renewables 3 Worldwide potential of low-enthalpy geothermal resources 3.1 World geothermal resources3.2 Types of geothermal systems 3.3 Available low- and high-enthalpy geothermal resources3.4 Actual use and developments of low- and high-enthalpy geothermal resources for power generation3.4.1 Countries with experiences using high-enthalpy resources for power generation3.5 Overcoming barriers to geothermal Energy 4 Low-enthalpy resources as solution for power generation and global warming mitigation4.1 Overview4.2 Benefits through emission reduction 4.2.1 The emission reduction potential4.2.2 The clean development mechanism CDM as incentive for developing countries 4.2.3 Emission reduction benefits on a national level 4.3 Benefits of domestic geothermal resources versus fossil fuel imports4.3.1 Benefits of geothermal for countries without fossil fuel resources4.3.2 Problems related to fossil fuel imports4.4 Benefits of geothermal versus hydroelectric power generation4.5 Rural geothermal electrification using low-enthalpy geothermal resources5 Geological, geochemical and geophysical characteristics of geothermal fields5.1 Geological and tectonic characteristics5.2 Geothermal systems associated with active volcanism and tectonics5.2.1 The New Zealand geothermal provinces 5.2.2 Indonesian geothermal provinces5.2.2.1 The Sarulla geothermal field 5.2.3 Philippines geothermal provinces5.2.3.1 The Bulalo geothermal field5.2.3.2 Leyte geothermal field5.2.3.3 The Palinpinon geothermal field5.2.4 Central American geothermal provinces 5.2.4.1 Guatemala5.2.4.2 Honduras5.2.4.3 El Salvador5.2.4.4 Nicaragua5.2.4.5 Costa Rica5.2.4.5.1 Geothermal development5.2.4.5.2 Miravalles geothermal field5.2.4.6 Panama5.3 Geothermal systems associated with continental collision zones5.3.1 The Himalayan geothermal system5.3.1.1 Yangbajing geothermal field, China5.4 Geothermal systems within the continental rift systems associated with active volcanism5.4.1 Ethiopian geothermal fields5.4.2 Kenya geothermal fields5.4.2.1 Olkaria geothermal fields5.4.2.2 Low-enthalpy geothermal fields5.5 Geothermal systems associated with continental rifts 5.5.1 The Larderello geothermal field, Italy5.5.2 Low-enthalpy systems of India5.5.2.1 West coast geothermal province5.5.2.2 Gujarat and Rajasthan geothermal provinces5.5.2.3 SONATA geothermal province5.5.3 Geothermal resources of Mongolia6 Geochemical methods for geothermal exploration6.1 Geochemical techniques6.2 Classification of geothermal waters6.3 Chemical constituents in geothermal waters6.4 Dissolved constituents in thermal waters6.4.1 Major ions6.4.2 Silica6.4.2.1 Effect of pH and solubility of silica6.4.3 Geothermometers6.4.3.1 Silica geothermometers6.4.3.2 Cation geothermometers6.4.4 Isotopes in geothermal waters6.4.4.1 Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in water6.4.4.2 Oxygen shift 6.4.4.3 Mixing with magmatic waters6.4.4.4 Steam separation 6.4.4.5 Interaction with reservoir or wall rocks7 Geophysical methods for geothermal resources exploration7.1 Geophysical techniques7.1 Heat flow measurements7.2 Electrical resistivity methods7.3 Magnetotelluric survey7.4 Geophysical well logging7.4.1 Gamma ray log7.4.2 Gamma-gamma density log7.4.3 Acoustic log7.4.4 Neutron log7.4.5 Temperature log8 Power generation techniques 8.1 Overview8.2 Criteria for the selection of working fluid8.3 Heat exchangers8.4 Kalina cycle9 Economics of power plants using low-enthalpy resources9.1 Drilling for low-enthalpy geothermal reservoirs9.2 Drilling cost9.3 Drilling costs versus depth9.4 Well productivity versus reservoir temperature9.5 Power production vs well head temperature and flow rate9.5.1 Raft river geothermal field9.6 High-enthalpy versus low-enthalpy power plants 10 Small low-enthalpy geothermal projects for rural electrification 10.1 Definition of small geothermal power plants10.2 Characterization of resources and cost reduction10.3 Energy need for rural sector10.4 Markets for small power plants10.5 Advantages of small power plants10.6 Cost of small power plants10.7 Examples of small power plants10.7.1 Chena low-enthalpy power plant, Alaska10.7.2 TAD's enterprises binary plants, Nevada10.7.3 Empire geothermal project, Nevada10.7.4 Fang binary power plant, Thailand10.7.5 Nagqu binary plant, Tibet10.7.6 Tu Chang binary power plant, Taiwan10.7.7 Binary power plant in Copahue, Argentina10.7.8 Husavik, Kalina cycle binary power plant, IcelandReferences